Chemical Irritants
After the baton, chemical irritants whether in the form of CS or more commonly Pepper seem to be the standard non lethal option carried by law enforcement and police officers world-wide.
CS
CS (ortho-Chlorobenzalmalononitrile) is a white crystalline solid which has been used for many years as an anti-riot agent. B.B. Corson and R.W. Stoughton originally developed this chemical in 1928. It's use as a crowd control chemical was originally used in the 1950's but was not seriously considered by law enforcement for use until the mid 1960's. Today CS is still used in varying forms for law enforcement purposes world wide.
CS Aerosol Incapacitant
CS aerosol incapacitant is issued to nearly all police forces within England and Wales. Three chief constables have declined to issue there officers CS incapacitant due to the controversy and threats of litigation that have unfortunately clouded the issues. It was issued to the Metropolitan Police after a Six-month trial in England and Wales and to date all operational Metropolitan Police Officers carry CS spray. Much controversy still surrounds the use of CS. This has been mainly directed at the solvent/suspension MIBK, which pressure groups and certain "experts" have claimed to be carcoegenic, this has recently been dispelled by the report commissioned by the Department of Health (see below).
Although still a controversial subject the issue of CS was long overdue and is a positive indication that attitudes towards less than lethal options are changing, both within policing circles and the general public. However there is a danger of complacency, although CS is a positive step it is very much a stopgap. There is much evidence to suggest that other chemical irritant sprays are more effective and other options must continue to be explored.
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Effects
In very minute quantities, CS has a peppery odour. At higher concentrations, the eyes will involuntarily close, have a burning sensation with profuse tearing. The nose will run, and moist skin will have a stinging sensation. CS will cause severe coughing, in concurrence with tightness in the chest and throat. Occasionally, dizziness or swimming of the head will be experienced. The effects are immediate taking full effect within 10 to 20 seconds. The receiver will begin to recover within 20-30 minutes and there are no recognised long-term effects.
Identified Shortfalls
- It is estimated CS does not affect 1 in 10 people 2. The reason for this is unknown. Contributing factors may be excited delirium, the individual will to fight through, intoxication of varying degrees, or adrenaline.
- Another associated problem with CS spray, is the cross contamination of officers especially in confined areas. Trial statistics show that 78% of officers using CS spray were affected by cross contamination in varying degrees. This may lead to the situation where an officer is injured or the situation escalates out of control, due to the fact that the CS irritant has incapacitated the officer rather than the suspect who may be unaffected.
- The controversy still surrounding the use of CS and the suspension MIBK. (See Statement by the Committees on Toxicity, Mutagenicity and Carcinogenicity commissioned by the Department of Health)
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CS aerosol should be viewed as a temporary measure in the ongoing review and development of UK non-lethal policing options. It should not be seen as being the definitive answer to officer safety, which unfortunately is the view of many police officers, from Constable to Chief Constables.
CN
CN (Chloracetophenone) was discovered by a German chemist in 1869 and is generally accepted as "tear gas" by law enforcement and military agencies throughout the world. This was the original ingredient for MACE, which has become the generic term in the US for Chemical Irritant sprays like CS, CN & OC.
It is seen to be less effective and interestingly potentially more dangerous than CS in high dosages.
Effects
- CN in minute quantities has an apple blossom odour. In larger quantities, CN causes heavy flow of tears and mucous. Burning and itching sensation of moist exposed skin. CN will produce nausea in larger quantities.
O.C. Oleoresin Capsicum
OC (Oleoresin Capsicum) is an extract of the cayenne pepper. Capsaicin is the active component of the oleoresin capsicum, which is considered the "heat". In most cases, OC is dispersed by the use of aerosols and is
used widely by Canadian Australian and US Police Departments. The effects of OC are similar to CS, although it is recognised as being a more effective incapacitant.
Effects
- OC has a peppery odour. In low concentrations, the eyes will involuntarily close, have a burning sensation with profuse tearing. The nose will run, and exposed skin will have a burning sensation. OC is an inflammatory agent and will cause severe coughing, in concurrence with tightness in the chest and throat. OC causes gastrointestinal and dermal irritation along with bronchoconstriction. OC works directly on the nerves in the skin, eyes and lungs. OC seeks out the nerve structures of the eyes and causes involuntary closing of the lids. OC upon entering the lungs seeks out the pulmonary C-fibre neurones to cause rapid and shallow breathing. Occasionally, dizziness or swimming of the head will be experienced. All of the above effects are produced 60 seconds after dosing, and they will last for 45 minutes after being dosed.
- Cross contamination still presents problems, but not to the same degree, as it does not crystallise and dissipates more quickly.
To date OC in the UK has been dismissed by the Home Office, due to the lack of research and scientific data.
This is also probably due, in part, to many associated deaths in US custody where police have used OC. A report commissioned by the US National Institute of Justice3 puts the problem more into perspective and debunks much myth and speculation. It investigates 22 cases of deaths in police custody, where OC had been used during arrest procedures. The report concludes that not one death could be attributed to OC. Indeed 18 of the 22 were as a result of positional asphyxia. There certainly is still much controversy concerning the issue and use of OC. More in depth medical research needs to be undertaken, examining further the medical issues associated with the use of OC.
PAVA
A water based synthetic OC irritant spray currently being researched by Hertfordshire Constabulary as an alternative to CS and OC. (see future technologies)
Other Uses of Chemical Irritants
Another option would be the use of CS or more increasingly OC irritant in a form other than the incapacitant spray. This takes several forms.
Barricade Penetrating Rounds
Barricade penetrating rounds such as the RIP (Round Irritant Personnel) or Ferret Round are fired from shotguns and can penetrate doors and windows prior to entry. Current UK ACPO recommendations on the issue and use of CS barricade penetrating rounds against " Armed besieged criminals or violently insane persons when not to use it would endanger the lives of the criminal, police or public". The CS or OC after breaching is dispersed in a fine powder.
A danger of fatality is high if the suspect were to be hit by the missile as it was fired through the door or window. However the accuracy is high and this allows the user to ensure as best as possible the subject is not hit.
- The advantages of this tactic are that no entry is initially required, and the suspect may give himself up prior to entry.
- Another advantage is there is no fire or smoke risk.
- If entry is required the suspect may be suffering from the effects of the gas and already be incapacitated.
- Disadvantages include that the effects of the irritant may make the suspects condition worse.
- It may also lead to the suspect exiting the premises prematurely. Therefore contingencies would be required to deal with this threat.
- However as with the spray, it is estimated 1 in 10 suspects may not be affected.
- Entry would also have to be made by the officers wearing respirators to protect them from the effects of the irritant. This leads to impaired vision and communication problems.
There is also the problem of contamination of the premises and any associated litigation.
Pyrotechnics
The use of pyrotechnic means to disperse CS or OC in the form of an airburst or grenades. This involves high fire risks and causes smoke and heat. These devices are designed to be used during public disorder, with large crowds in an outdoor environment.
Technologies